托福獨(dú)立寫作常識介紹
備考托福獨(dú)立寫作的考生，一定要明確托福寫作的一些常識，這樣才能更有針對的備考。下面，學(xué)習(xí)啦小編給大家介紹托福獨(dú)立寫作備考常識，供大家參考。
托福獨(dú)立寫作常識介紹
托福獨(dú)立寫作字?jǐn)?shù)要求
官方對于托福獨(dú)立寫作的說法是：“An effective response is typically about 300 words long……“，因此對于托福獨(dú)立寫作的要求只是一個(gè)模糊的概念，大約在300字左右。不過，在字?jǐn)?shù)范圍之上，官方對于有效、充分地表達(dá)自己的寫作觀點(diǎn)才是重中之重。因此，編輯在這里和大家再次申述一遍，托福獨(dú)立寫作的關(guān)鍵是要對考題展開充分論述，從而有利地支持文章觀點(diǎn)，充足的字?jǐn)?shù)是必須的，但是300字并不是嚴(yán)格的要求范圍。
托福獨(dú)立寫作審題和布局
托福寫作的第一步就是審題和文章布局。審題的精確程度直接影響到托福寫作文章話題的出準(zhǔn)確度以及文章內(nèi)容的整體發(fā)展。而對于托福獨(dú)立寫作題目的分析可知，托福獨(dú)立寫作題目大部分都是支持/反對的類型，剩下的一小部分是對比論述型。審題之后，就是要對文章進(jìn)行布局搭建，一般來說，五段式的三個(gè)主體段，若都是同意或者都是反對的理由的話，一般這些分論點(diǎn)有兩種邏輯順序。第一種按照“重要性”來排，將你認(rèn)為最主要的理由放在第一個(gè)主體段中詳細(xì)論證;第二種是按照“小到大”的原則，即個(gè)人方面的理由先寫，然后再是家庭，公司，最后再是社會，國家。
托福獨(dú)立寫作例證技巧
在審題和布局之后，就是論述觀點(diǎn)的階段。對于這部分而言，一般是用例證法論述。其中使用頻率最高的是分類例證法和人物例證法。分類例證法主要是根據(jù)托福寫作常考的題材進(jìn)行論證，這樣更有針對性;而人物例證法，可以在寫作時(shí)選擇體育界、商界等領(lǐng)域的名人作為文章的例子，很具有說服力。人物舉例的另一個(gè)優(yōu)勢是可使用的句子結(jié)構(gòu)豐富，可以廣泛使用虛擬語氣、排比句，這里筆者以虛擬語氣為例進(jìn)行說明。
托福寫作中必須跨越的文化障礙
托福寫作過程實(shí)際上是一種跨文化交際過程，文化差異必定成為學(xué)生寫作中獲取高分的障礙。托福寫作不是要求學(xué)生堆砌各類高難詞匯或者絞盡腦汁編造長難句的過程，而是要求學(xué)生用英文準(zhǔn)確描述自己中文思維的過程，達(dá)意是托福寫作的最高境界。因此，學(xué)生必須熟悉中英文在表達(dá)方式上的差異，才能做到在考場上的精準(zhǔn)轉(zhuǎn)述，進(jìn)而獲得高分。本文以中英文表達(dá)法的差異為切入點(diǎn)，進(jìn)行托福寫作中跨文化交際的探討。
在托福寫作教學(xué)中，常常會發(fā)現(xiàn)：學(xué)生的英語似乎被漢語同化，句子中充滿了中國式的英語(Chinglish)。其中原因恐怕涉及很多方面，但主要原因在于學(xué)生對兩種語言的句子表達(dá)方式差異不了解。因此在英語寫作教學(xué)中，應(yīng)堅(jiān)持英漢比較原則，讓學(xué)生理性認(rèn)識兩種語言的異同。正如呂淑湘所說：“對于中國學(xué)生最有用的幫助是讓他們認(rèn)識英語和漢語的差別，在每一個(gè)具體問題-詞形、詞義、語法范疇、句子結(jié)構(gòu)上，都盡可能用漢語的情況來根英語作比較，讓他們通過比較得到更深刻的領(lǐng)會。”
一、英語重形合，漢語重意合
所謂行合指英語句子中各分句之間的聯(lián)系大多是通過詞匯紐帶直接體現(xiàn)出來的，并且英語中單個(gè)詞的變化會體現(xiàn)意義的變化。所謂意合指漢語句子主要通過字詞的意義連接起來。
1.英語中的名詞單復(fù)數(shù)變化
一本書 a book
兩本書 two books
在漢語中，名詞的單復(fù)數(shù)全靠意合，也就是，”書“這個(gè)字不會變化，變的是”書“前面的修飾詞;而在英語中名詞的復(fù)數(shù)一定是體現(xiàn)在”book“這一個(gè)詞上的，一定要把“book”改成“books”。在托福寫作中，英語的單復(fù)數(shù)形式是學(xué)生最最容易忽略的一點(diǎn)，也是最容易扣分的一點(diǎn)，那在寫作的時(shí)候默念名詞單復(fù)數(shù)100遍，保證不犯這種錯(cuò)誤。
2.英語中動詞的時(shí)態(tài)變化
我昨天在香港大學(xué)做了演講。
I made a speech in the University of Hong Kong yesterday.
她正在香港大學(xué)做演講。
She is making a speech in the University of Hong Kong.
在漢語中，一件事情發(fā)生的時(shí)間是“昨天”、“現(xiàn)在”還是“未來”，只要加上“昨天”、“今天”、“明天”這幾個(gè)詞就好了。但是在英文中不行，一定要在“動詞”上進(jìn)行體現(xiàn)。由于這點(diǎn)中西文化差異，時(shí)態(tài)也是很多學(xué)生選擇性忽略的一點(diǎn)跨文化常識，明明寫的是過去發(fā)生的事情，偏偏用現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)?？荚嚂r(shí)留幾分鐘檢查語法錯(cuò)誤，為自己多爭取幾分。
3.句子表達(dá)
英語句子主干結(jié)構(gòu)突出，即主謂賓結(jié)構(gòu)明顯，其他定語、狀語、補(bǔ)語成分好似主干上的枝葉，借助各種關(guān)聯(lián)詞進(jìn)行搭建，把句子的子句有機(jī)結(jié)合起來。而漢語句子沒有主謂框架限制。
例如：1)留得青山在，不怕沒柴燒
As long as the green mountains are there, one should not worry about firewood.
2)冬天來了，春天還會遠(yuǎn)嗎?
If winter comes, can spring be far behind?
在例句1)的漢語表達(dá)中，并沒有“只要”這個(gè)詞，但是在英文中需要寫出“as long as”這個(gè)短語，也要加上泛指的主語”one“，因?yàn)橛⑽木渥右欢ㄒ谢镜摹敝髦^“結(jié)構(gòu)。例句2)中的英文表達(dá)中加入了漢語中沒有”if“ 這個(gè)詞，來體現(xiàn)英文的”主謂“結(jié)構(gòu)以及從句結(jié)構(gòu)。
托福備考之寫作要注意用詞
compare與contrast的誤用
我們先從兩者的定義入手來看兩者的區(qū)別。 Compare的定義為：to examine people or things to see how theyare similar or different. Contrast的定義為：to comparetwo or more things to show the difference betweenthem.由定義不難看出前者側(cè)重于找到兩個(gè)或多個(gè)事物的異同，而后者則側(cè)重于它們的不同。
看個(gè)例句：
It is interesting to compare their situations to ours./It is interesting to contrast theirsituations to ours.
前一句翻譯為：對比一下我們的情況與他們的情況會很有趣。
后一句的翻譯為：我們的情況與他們的情況有很大的不同，這很有趣。
再看一個(gè)引自O(shè)XFORD ADBANCED LEARNER’S DICTIONARY的例子：
There is an obvious contrast between the culture of East and West.
The company lost $7 million in contrast to a profit of $6.2 million a year earlier.
When you look at their new system， ours seems very old-fashioned by contrast.
不難發(fā)現(xiàn)，Compare翻譯為“與。。。相比”而contrast可譯為“明顯不同的是。。?！?，切記這種翻譯方式就不會用錯(cuò)彼此了。
其中最容易有問題的便是介詞的使用了，下面來看看幾種情況：
1、普通介詞的誤用
一般表現(xiàn)為固定搭配錯(cuò)誤，如常把provide sb with sth用成provide sb sth; be satisfied with用成besatisfied for等等，雖然這樣的錯(cuò)誤看似無傷大雅，但在考官眼里就是影響順暢閱讀的，根據(jù)托福學(xué)寫作評分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)當(dāng)然會影響最終成績。解決的辦法簡單而古老：把常見的固定搭配牢記于心，問題自然就解決了。
2、 “to”作為介詞的誤用
“to”最常見的用法是以動詞不定式符號的形式出現(xiàn)的，所以同學(xué)們也已經(jīng)習(xí)慣了“to do”的固定搭配。對于一些如walk to me， to the left等介詞to表方向等常見用法一般也不會出現(xiàn)錯(cuò)誤。但是對于與動詞搭配的介詞to就會經(jīng)常犯錯(cuò)：
如：
More and more students have taken to depend on their parents to make decision for them.
這里的‘take to’ means ‘to begin to do sth as a habit’其中‘to’為介詞，所以后面只能接名詞或相當(dāng)于名詞的詞，如動名詞。所以黑體處應(yīng)改為“depending on”。“take to”的另一個(gè)常用用法也需要牢記：
He hasn’t taken to his new school. (這里‘take to’ means ‘to start liking sb or sth’)
Prefer A to B中的“to”也是介詞，會有prefer doing sth to doing sth/ prefer sth to sthelse，“prefer to do sth rather than do sth”中的“to”可是真正的不定式符號。
類似的常用用法請同學(xué)們牢記：
Be used to doing
Be accustomed to doing
See to doing
Adapt to doing
Adjust to doing
prefer doing sth. to doing sth.
等等，托福寫作請注意平時(shí)仔細(xì)積累。
assume及claim使用不夠準(zhǔn)確
我們知道， think， assume， claim是議論文中常用引出觀點(diǎn)的動詞。在實(shí)際作文中，同學(xué)們往往認(rèn)為幾個(gè)詞的意思是一樣的，完全可以代換，所以拿過來就用。甚至還有同學(xué)把consider也拿過來與之混用。我們首先還是從定義來看這幾個(gè)詞的不同：
Think： to have opinion or belief about sth.
翻譯為“認(rèn)為”，通常接賓語從句來表達(dá)比較確定的觀點(diǎn)。
Assume： to think or accept that sth is true but without having proof of it.
翻譯為“假設(shè)、假定”，是否有事實(shí)依據(jù)是不確定的。
Claim： to say sth is true although it has not been proved and other people may not believeit.
翻譯為“聲稱”，用這個(gè)詞往往意味著不贊同緊跟其后的觀點(diǎn)，所以很少用作‘I claim that…
Scientist are claiming a breakthrough in the fight against cancer， but in fact， …。
所以‘It is claimed that’通常翻譯為“有報(bào)道稱。。?！薄：汀甶t is reported that ’的區(qū)別在于后者翻譯為“據(jù)報(bào)道”，往往代表著作者贊同報(bào)告的內(nèi)容，
Consider： to think about sth carefully， especially in order to make a decision
翻譯為“考慮”，一般不用作引出觀點(diǎn)，看個(gè)例子：
We are considering buying a new car.
所以，千萬不要在托福寫作的第一段(觀點(diǎn)表達(dá)段)就因?yàn)橛迷~把握不準(zhǔn)而導(dǎo)致對整篇文章的低分印象。
表“建議”的詞匯后面忘記用虛擬從句
這是摘自學(xué)生托福作文中的一個(gè)病句：
I suggest he continues his study instead of working after graduation from high school.
因?yàn)椤畇uggest’翻譯為“建議”，所以后面的從句應(yīng)該用虛擬語氣，黑體部分應(yīng)該改為“(should) continue”
所以考生一定要牢記以下常見表“建議”的托福寫作詞匯，而且要記住這些詞接從句時(shí)要用虛擬語氣：
Recommend， suggest， advise
such as與for example的混用
我們知道，在表示舉例子的時(shí)候，such as與like是完全等同的，如：Wild flowers such as/likeorchids and primroses are becoming rare.
但是同學(xué)們對于Such as、for example的把握還是不夠準(zhǔn)確。我們都知道，后者接句子前者接詞語表示舉例子。于是就有了下面的寫法：
There is a similar word in many languages， such as in French and Italian.
這里的such as改為for example為好，因?yàn)椤癷n French and Italian”其實(shí)是“there is a similar word inFrench and Italian”的簡化，所以要用for example來引出例證。再來看個(gè)類似的例子：
It is possible to combine computer science with other subjects, for example physics.
托福寫作范文：經(jīng)濟(jì)危機(jī)時(shí)政府減少支出
托福獨(dú)立寫作題目：
In times of an economic crisis, in which area should governments reduce its spending? 1. Arts 2. Scientific research 3. Parks and public gardens.
托福寫作模板及參考答案：
托福寫作范文參考:
During an economic crisis, governments face difficult choices of monetary allocation with reduced budgets. In this challenging time, it is of vital importance for policy-makers to recognize the effectiveness of policy-making on certain social services or programs such as arts, scientific research and park and public gardens. If a choice has to be made, in my opinion, the government should reduce its spending on arts.
To begin with, in times of an economic crisis, it is significant for policy-makers to recognize the necessity of investing in scientific research because it exerts a far-reaching effect. If the financial crisis leads to substantial cuts in funding for scientific research by governments, it will be difficult to muster investment for a public good, like clean air, or for extremely risky initiatives, such as novel approaches to new antibiotic drugs, or in areas where the outcome is uncertain. As a matter of fact, technological innovation, biomedical breakthroughs, and tackling pressing environmental issues all require sustained scientific development, from basic discovery to final application. Investing in research is investing in the future, and it requires a long-term commitment to the accumulation of knowledge, the testing of basic principles, and the translation of these discoveries into practical applications that impact everyday life. Consequently, governments ought to attach more importance to the scientific studies so as to develop world class research base and conduct crucial scientific projects.
Furthermore, funding for parks and public gardens provides an opportunity for people to engage in physical activities, which is considerably beneficial to health. Nowadays, due to the sedentary lifestyle and unhealthy eating diet, overweight and obesity are epidemic problems across the world, and related conditions are on the rise. A primary focus of attention is providing environment where people can be physically active. Parks offer such an opportunity. In addition, health studies have shown that people who do regular exercise get a range of benefits when they are in natural settings, like parks and public gardens. These benefits include reduced risk of premature death; reduced risk of heart disease, hypertension, cancer; improved maintenance of muscle strength; weight loss and favorable redistribution of body fat; improved physical functioning. Therefore, when governments allocate fiscal spending on parks such as well-designed and well-maintained paths as well as attractive scenery, people can substantially improve their health and quality of life by doing moderate amounts of physical activity in their daily lives.
Undeniably, if governments pay more attention to investment in art, people can enrich inner world as a diverse and productive cultural environment can provide the spirit and important intangible values. However, in times of crisis, people usually lay emphasis on basic needs instead of spiritual needs. As a result, the importance of material comforts outweighs that of nourishment for the mind and it does not mean that people’s quality of life will be dramatically affected if governments cut budget on art and provide less financial support on art institutions. In a sense, it will not directly influence people’s life at least in a short term because people rarely need to satisfy their aesthetic needs everyday. Therefore, compared with scientific research and park and public gardens, art is least associated with people’s daily life and it needs less concern.
From what has been discussed above, scientific studies serve the common interest of the entire human race and doing exercise in parks and public gardens constitutes an indispensable part of daily life. It is more applicable and reasonable to cut down spending on art in the times of an economic crisis.
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